Thomas J W (2000) A Review of Research on Project-based Learning
Abstruse
Project-based learning is an active method that develops the maximum involvement and participation of students in the learning process. It requires the teacher to energize the learning scenario by promoting the cooperation of students to investigate, make decisions and answer to the challenges of the project. Information technology likewise requires activating an evaluation organisation that promotes sensation, reflexivity and a critical spirit, facilitating deeper learning. This case study aims to understand the operation of cooperative piece of work established during the application of the method, as well equally to know how the evaluation process progresses in the perspective of a group of teachers of secondary didactics that ready this methodology in their classes. The data obtained from interviews with the teachers involved in the written report, teachers' notebooks, and open-question questionnaire applied to high-school students are analyzed. Although the students were organized in small groups in order to develop their collaborative skills, intragroup frictions and conflicts were not sufficiently addressed or supervised in time by the teachers, thus resulting in an incomplete development of the synergies and collaboration necessaries to the project. From the point of view of the evaluation, the importance of the implementation of training and shared evaluation systems is well recognized, although a more traditional evaluation model, which does non sufficiently address the project development procedure prevails, and the value of the qualification on the last product achieved still weights.
Introduction
Equally a result of the crisis scenario that began in Spain in 2007, the need to incorporate to the Secondary Pedagogy phase some subjects with economic contents, was posed in lodge to innovate and make students understand the socio-economical circumstances in the globe. Simultaneously, didactics methods accept been incorporating some learning methodologies that aim to brand students able to solve, with involvement, the problems presented to them (Martín and Rodríguez, 2015). Some of these methods orient learning towards a competitive graphic symbol such as cooperative methodologies, gamification or projection-based learning (PBL) (Hernández March, 2006).
The PBL method is a methodological alternative that involves direct contact with the object of written report and ends with the realization of a work project by the students initially proposed by the teacher (Bell, 2010), applying cognition and skills and developing an attitude of commitment (Sánchez, 2018). In society to do this, students analyze the topic raised, think about it, organize themselves, search for information, work as a team and make decisions. It is, therefore, intended to promote knowledge of the contents equally well as the direction of skills and attitudes, learning to mobilize those resources said in state of affairs and to solve bug (Perrenoud, 2008).
The experience carried out requires students to face real-life problem statements through activities that suit their interests (Krajcik and Blumenfeld, 2006), find and utilise tools to address them and act collaboratively to suggest solutions through an activeness plan (Barret, 2005; Bender, 2012; Blumenfeld et al., 1991). Traditional training models are based in the premise that students accept to know the content in guild to apply information technology in solving a problem. The PBL reverses this order and considers that students obtain the knowledge while solving a problem (Jonassen, 2011), an aspect that results in a college quality of the information they handle to solve it, since it is shared, discussed and practical in a concrete situation (Thomas, 2000).
Thus, through PBL, students program, discuss, and implement projects that have existent-globe impact and are significant to them (Bare, 1997; Dickinson et al., 1998). They implement skills for the direction of interpersonal and squad relationships, the teacher acting every bit a guide and counselor during the learning process (Kolmos, 2012; Thomas, 2000). This allows students to think about their proposals, develop them and become aware of the process itself and everything that it implies beyond the results achieved (Brundiers and Wiek, 2013; García et al., 2010).
In this way, the acquisition of social skills, empathetic behavior, dialog and listening (Belland et al., 2006), the evolution of critical and reflective thinking (Mergendoller et al., 2006) is favored past activating competencies such as collaboration, decision-making, organization and group responsibility (Bare, 1997; Dickinson et al., 1998), contributing to the development of a more motivating and participatory learning climate (Lima et al., 2007).
This methodological aspect requires, in parallel, the review of the evaluation systems; information technology appears as necessary to leave backside the traditional cumulative models to innovate a new model of more formative, shared and authentic evaluation that is able to guarantee a greater involvement of the students in the development of their and their peer's learning procedure (Chocolate-brown and Race, 2013). An authentic evaluation offers the students opportunities to learn through the evaluation process planned and directed by the teacher. When the evaluation system is advisedly designed to articulate with the learning results that are expected to exist achieved, it is possible to obtain benefits in terms of greater participation and helps students to advance in the development of their cognition, skills and attitudes (Brown, 2015).
Cooperation as the basis of projection-based learning
One of the essential aspects of developing the PBL is the management of cooperation between the group participants, an attribute that must be guaranteed and supervised by offering sufficient feedback (Thomas, 2000). For Orlick (1986) cooperation is directly related to advice, cohesion, trust and skills evolution for positive social interaction.
However, Díaz-Barriga and Hernández (2002) consider that group work, which teachers frequently launch in project initiatives, does not necessarily implies truthful cooperation and there are many interpersonal problems that students face (Prince and Felder, 2006). This aspect prevents a real learning of collaboration and its application in activeness to accost the shared phase of project management.
Burdett (2007) considers that, sometimes within the group, interpersonal relationships are strained since participation in group piece of work involves much more than each member's knowledge on a given subject: It involves listening, negotiating, giving in; ultimately, skills that favor the dynamics of group work. Such situations of tension and intragroup crises jeopardize the assignment to exist developed and the effectiveness of group synergy, as established by Del Canto et al. (2009), Jhen and Mannix (2001), Kerr and Bruun (1983), Putnam (1997), and Velázquez (2013) and those are grouped effectually five critical dimensions: Differences in private capacities to consummate assignments, resulting in the stowaway result; imbalance in the functions to exist performed; early abandonment in completing assignments due to unresolved discrepancies; struggle to brand one's own ideas prevail and lack of communicative skills.
Besides for Kerr and Bruun (1983) and Slavin (2014) tensions ascend from the lack of a follow-up by the instructor in the group work procedure entrusted to their students, not monitoring the performance and contribution of each member by thriving the aforementioned stowaway effect, imbalances in workloads borne by each member and unresolved crises in interpersonal relationships, non benefiting the task direction, the project development and its off-white evaluation.
Intragroup conflicts oft cause widespread pupil complaints, lack of motivation, frustration, and occasionally, a preference for private work that does seem to guarantee the fair evaluation of the assignment (Gámez and Torres, 2012; McConnell, 2005).
That is why establishing initial cooperative learning dynamics to learn how to interact, assume new responsibilities, communicate and assertively express ideas (Velázquez, 2013), is essential to get started in the PBL methodology. Johnson et al. (1999a) define cooperative learning as a work-based methodology in small, usually heterogeneous groups in which students work together to improve their ain and other member's learning.
Several authors understand cooperative learning as an active methodology that favors the reflection of students while completing the assignment; not only des information technology allow to achieve academic goals, but besides social objectives, it stimulates interaction through the proposal of small-scale groups and guides the realization of a type of group work, structured and monitored, to favor the learning of all the members of the group without exception (Dyson, 2002; Johnson et al., 1999b; Kagan, 2000; Pujolàs, 2009).
According to Johnson and Johnson (1999) the direction of cooperative learning by teachers requires, for its effectiveness, guarantees in the management of positive interdependence, making the students sympathise that piece of work benefits colleagues by prioritizing "usa" over "I", proactive interaction, individual responsibility, interpersonal skills, and group processing at the terminate of the work sessions performed.
The teacher establishes a structured procedure of truthful cooperation easing the development of bookish objectives, but also other competitive objectives: cooperation, communication, social skills (Walberg and Paik, 2002).
It is important to note in this regard the office of the evaluation on the projects implemented, developed and presented. Pérez-Pueyo and López-Pastor (2017) propose a model of formative evaluation through the use of cooperative projects, in which a further footstep is taken in the autonomy of the students past fully involving them in the teaching process through shared tutoring, especially when the realization of projects that crave a lot of interest or levels of complexity in their realization is encouraged. In add-on, the utilise of tools such equally machine evaluations and grouping co-evaluations (Hamodi et al., 2015), let the teacher to requite more effective feedback during the process, based on the information provided past the students.
Objectives
Based on the contributions of the various authors cited above, who understand cooperative learning as an active methodology that allows students to reach not simply academic goals merely besides social objectives, thus promoting the learning for all the students without exceptions, the present study aims to achieve the following objectives: Understanding the functioning of cooperative piece of work present in the development of the operational dynamics of the PBL launched.
Knowing how the determinative evaluation process develops in the operational dynamics of the PBL.
Methods
Participants and context
The study included 16 students on their quaternary year of Secondary Pedagogy (with an boilerplate of xv years old, 8 females and 8 males) attention Cristo Rey Polytechnic Institute in the city of Valladolid, and taking the elective subject area of Economics. Besides three male person teachers and 2 female person teachers (ages [35–57]) who teach at the same centre and stage, in which they utilize PBL every bit an active methodology. All procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and national inquiry committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its afterwards amendments or comparable ethical standards.
Procedure
During the development of the research, the power of students to work through PBL was tested, applying the academic projection entitled My Business Plan, throughout the discipline of Economics in the compulsory secondary instruction stage. The students were bundled in groups of 4 to v members with different capacities and potentialities.
These heterogeneous groups allowed the development of various skills past the students, with the intention of improving them together with intragroup interpersonal relationships.
Data collection and information analysis tools
An in-depth interview was designed for teachers who were to some extent incorporating PBL as an active methodology in the development of their subjects. They thus class a representation of the kinesthesia imparting subjects such as Economics, Geography and History, Biology and Geology, Physics and Chemistry and Philosophy. At the same time, an open-question questionnaire was designed for students. Finally, a reflexive diary was drafted in which observations were recorded from the experiences carried out in course.
In relation to the analysis of the information obtained, the ATLAS.ti software has been used, confectioning a work of textual assay of the transcripts of teachers' interviews, the answers on the open up questions of the questionnaire answered by the students, alongside with the instructor's own reflexive diary.
On the three primary documents, a coding process is carried out inductively and deductively through two cycles (Miles et al., 2014). Thus, during the process, a abiding circular relationship betwixt the codes already obtained and the new ones I created, refining the concepts, grouping them, to infer in higher-level constructs as groups of explanatory codes (Kalpokaite and Radivojevic, 2019).
The codes obtained during the starting time coding bike were analyzed critically and independently by the four researchers participating in the study establishing a thoughtful fence. Continuous feedback between researchers and their ongoing participation in the regeneration and refinement of codes and groups of codes supported the credibility, reliability and transparency of the research (Neal et al., 2015).
It was considered that saturation had been reached at the time where comparisons between the information ceased to show new relationships and backdrop betwixt them, depleting that representative wealth of a circular belittling process (Picture, 2007).
In order to address the credibility aspects of the inquiry in relation to the interpretative difficulties of the phenomenon studied (Lincoln and Guba, 1985), a structure of prolonged over time experimentation was developed, with the presence of the researcher at the location, maintaining the same methodological society, establishing her effigy as an observer teacher during the time of inquiry; in the analysis of the information, a process of triangulation was developed from the 3 aforementioned sources of documentary data, this allowing the dissimilarity of the discoveries.
Results
40-one explanatory codes of the miracle under investigation were established and grouped around 4 categories: Learning, interaction-collaboration, motivation, organization.
The use of the ATLAS.ti software as a code co-coordinate tool was convenient, assuasive to discover how four codes of the categories Learning and Interaction-Collaboration related to each other: cooperation, conflicts, evaluation and projection. Their relational written report allows to reverberate critically on the several handicaps found and whose consideration is essential for the applicability of the practice.
Thus, to accost the start objective of the study—knowing the functioning of cooperative piece of work in the development of the operational dynamics of the PBL launched—taking as a starting bespeak the perceptions of the teachers interviewed and the relationships they establish between PBL and cooperation, they evidence a formula of practical application using cooperative structures in the form of pocket-size groups, which they consider makes it easier for students to encourage communication, to develop skills for interpersonal relationships, every bit well equally private and group responsibility in the fulfillment of the assignments proposed.
(…) I mix it at beginning with cooperative work, with small groups, with cooperative structures because beingness such dumbo subjects (…) and at the cease of the schoolhouse year, the last quarter, we already work on the project (Male person Instruction Interview. 4:69).
In the groups, the smaller the amend they work, (I would recommend) 4 tops, like concluding yr (…) this allows everyone to work, if they are too many, the tasks get diluted and if there are very few, and it also happens sometimes, if i is sick or misses course for some reason for as well many days, the groups gets resented… then it rally allows to work on relationships and influences the quality of learning very clearly by what I say… one is good at one thing, the other is good at some other thing, and they finish up learning from each other (Male Teaching Interview. 4:358).
The same teacher considers, in the application of the methodology, the cosmos of minor working groups, defending this formula as very valuable to develop the communicative and negotiation abilities to attain agreements and coordinate with others, the students winning from an experiential point of view, in socialization and interaction resources.
I divided the class into 4 groups of 4 students each (…), they had ten minutes to explicate in front of the residue of the classmates what their business concern model was past answering diverse questions. (…) the idea of the projection is that they are the ones who work on this concept throughout the course and thus gradually become familiar with that surround and its vocabulary (Reflexive Diary. iii:394).
Through the PBL they work together, they talk more than, they must agree on different aspects, and information technology requires coordination, that is, an effort of all of them, not depending so much on their private abilities; this arroyo is very unlike from the master course, and I do believe that, from a social bespeak of view, socialization develops more and ameliorate this way (Reflexive Diary. 4:412).
Withal, the same teachers interviewed acknowledge that, during the development of the methodology, applying grouping piece of work strategies for cooperation, numerous frictions and interpersonal conflicts are ofttimes triggered inside the working groups. A closer attention is put on those students who does not follow the intended pattern of behavior and unleash conflict because they do not assume or conduct out their workload.
The most negative aspect are those students who exercise non want to participate, or find it hard to participate, or practice not get involved and seriously impairment the group, and sometimes problems such as friction and conflicts tin appear among them for this reason; working individually, logically, there is no such problem (Female Instructor Interview. 4:150).
That educatee who is a little lazier, they can take advantage of the grouping work situation so that others work a little for them (Male teacher interview. 4:343).
This aspect is also observed and recorded past the instructor in her reflexive diary, acknowledging incidents that are probable to occur in the groups, generating some interpersonal conflict and influence on grouping performance to conduct out the tasks of the project.
There is a group of four boys who you have to tell off and who I do not intend to bring together in the future for the groups of the project (Reflexive Diary. three:296).
Z (…) during group work he plays with the table, gets distracted by what other teammates practise (…). I recall he's a boy who is too easily distracted and annoys his peers (Reflexive Diary. 3:160).
The students themselves consider that the projection suffers when situations in which not all members of the group work in tune occur, creating imbalances in the effort made and in the management of the workloads and involvement causeless, which accept an impact not only on the realization of the tasks and assignments and their concluding evaluation, merely too on the intragroup climate.
I don't like information technology when there's someone in my grouping who doesn't work and gets the same grade as me or nosotros fail the project all because of him, because we don't all piece of work equally; sometimes I felt that if I didn't tell them to practice something, they wouldn't do information technology (Student Questionnaire. five:242)
At that place are groups where simply ane or two people piece of work and it's not fair. The rest of them get too comfortable and their work is minimal. I would try watching those who do not work, or not giving them the aforementioned grade (Educatee Questionnaire. 5:123)
When the members of the group practice not work, the project can be a disaster; and if a person does not desire to do their job and so discussions arise; for me the experience is negative because I did piece of work and I did it all by myself (Educatee Questionnaire. 6:134)
With regard to the second objective of the study, knowing how the formative evaluation process develops in the operational dynamics of the PBL, taking into account the teachers involved in the inclusion of PBL in their teaching practice, it seems to bear witness a hard development, recognizing the abiding presence of tests and evaluations as a generalized tool of measurement of the caused knowledge. However, it recognizes the value of other competence aspects that must necessarily be considered past applying tools that arrive easier for students to raise awareness of the developed learnings, besides every bit the value of the teacher as a guide who oversees the learning procedure and controls and leads it.
Evaluation is a complex topic because if you base of operations your work on projects and in the end yous give them an exam you are giving more value to the contents and not so much to everything else; that is why for the final evaluation we are already working on taking into consideration the valuable opinions of each 1, that of the classmates, the ones shared among students and teachers through auto evaluation practices, co-evaluation and heteroevaluation. In this way they develop their disquisitional ability, their capability to value themselves and others (Male Instructor Interview. 4:323).
I like every bit a teacher to supervise how they perform the practice of PBL, if everyone works and contributes; so I believe that this work is washed in forepart of them (Male person teacher interview. four:442).
When one works in a group inside the classroom the human relationship between the students and the teacher is reinforced because they are no longer seen as a effigy of dominance or a superior, but every bit a guide who knows, who helps, who collaborates with them and listens to them (Female person Instructor Interview. 4:388).
The same teacher in her reflexive diary mentions the use of evaluation practices such as co-evaluation allowing the students to express themselves in order to participate and getting them involved through paper presentations and consequent evaluation between classmates; she also references the heteroevaluation allowing the time for educatee-teacher dialog based on the assignments and a proposal to solve the projection addressed.
What I want is for them to work a picayune bit and, to make sure of that, equally they develop the eight sections on their projection, they must brand a presentation in front end of the residuum of their classmates that will be evaluated past themselves and commented by the residual of us (Reflexive Diary. 3:701).
Once the presentations were completed, I gave each group a questionnaire to conduct a co-evaluation on the projection addressed; for this evaluation, each grouping would evaluate the work presented past the other groups, grading representatively each of the sections of the project, and so that nosotros could have several grades to exist used for the final evaluation of the project (Reflexive Diary. iii:335).
To conclude, the students recognize certain limitations in the evaluation of their work, mainly in a key of a not-follow-up of the process established in the classroom to address the projection and the assignments required. They propose solutions to develop a greater control on those people in the group who do not contribute in the realization of the aforementioned assignments, as well every bit a better management of the final grade that, being the aforementioned for the whole group, is detrimental, in their perception, to the germination of a off-white value in relation to the diff effort made. Sometimes the proposed solutions are oriented in an opposite direction to the cooperative spirit that the PBL promotes.
The way I would solve the trouble of those colleagues who have advantage of the work of others when working as a group is to set them lonely to piece of work; to do their own projection; that way, at least they would control those who exercise not work (Student Questionnaire. five:168).
Every bit a positive experience, I find working with projects more enjoyable and entertaining; the most negative thing is that it is almost never worked equally, and approximately the aforementioned class is received. It is better to form individually instead of having a last grouping form (Student Questionnaire. 3:356).
The problem with those classmates who have advantage of other's piece of work when working in a grouping I would solve by telling the teacher, and giving an individual grade on each consignment done by each group member, specifying who did what (Student Questionnaire. v:206).
Discussion
When education methods such as PBL are used, in which the teacher poses a question, a challenge or a specific problem connected with the reality that students have to solve (Bell, 2010), the caste of involvement of these students seems to increase. In the teaching-learning process, they become the protagonists when they are invited to seek, appraise, interpret and share information with the rest of the group members, and they utilize a more critical mode of thinking, since they are constantly and mutually questioned about why and what are they studying for.
In this sense, the students participate collaboratively in all the proposed assignments: understanding and interpretation of information, drove of information, training of partial deliveries, writing of the final study, and oral presentation before others, assessing the problem or claiming proposed with the intention of existence able to depict their own conclusions.
In the implementation of these formative dynamics as an culling to more traditional methodological models, a new style of generating and developing learning is consequently activated, applying a cooperative piece of work model, beingness the management of grouping activity to face the projection a vital aspect.
In relation to the cooperative dynamics of operation of the PBL experiences developed, the implementation of a methodological model is observed; this model is based, as a starting indicate, on cooperative structures by which the students are intended to address the project. Such structures materialize in the grade of small and heterogeneous groups that seek to guarantee advice between their members (Johnson et al., 1999a), unleashing a strongly competency learning model (Perrenoud, 2008) in which students have to combine the noesis, skills and attitudes that they learn, in a shared fashion with their classmates, to face the assignments and deport out the project proposed and presented by the teacher (Bell, 2010; Thomas, 2000).
In the same way, intentionally, the dynamics proposed by teachers through this methodology intend to trigger learning situations in which negotiation, compromise, listening, agreement-reaching and coordination to make decisions and solve problems are aspects of interaction and socialization necessarily to exist encouraged, equally established by Belland et al. (2006) and Bender (2012).
Nonetheless, there is a general business concern about the direction in the classroom of the cooperative structures placed in lodge to develop the project. Friction, conflicts inherent in group life and the result of the cooperation dynamics applied to plant in a shared way the action programme to address the entrusted project are recognized. They identify in certain students a lack of willingness for cooperation and commitment, aspects that generate intragroup tension that for Slavin (2014) is necessary to go on track of by the instructor during the learning procedure, for example, paying special attention to those situations in which the stowaway effect occurs (Kerr and Bruun, 1983; Slavin, 2014).
In this matter, the students themselves draw occasional imbalances in the efforts made to carry out the assignments, the weight of the workloads assumed and, ultimately, a certain lack of harmony when relating to each other when it comes to getting involved in the project. For Del Canto et al. (2009), Jhen and Mannix (2001), Putnam (1997), and Velázquez (2013) cooperation requires attention on these critical aspects during its development, benefiting the grouping climate itself and thus, the performance on the assignments. For Gámez and Torres (2012) and McConnell (2005), intragroup conflict provokes generalized complaints, loss of enthusiasm and motivation for grouping members, a source of arguments and frustration, an attribute present in the study in the vox of the students involved.
At the same fourth dimension, the teaching staff, in relation to the evaluation of the formative dynamics based on the PBL put in place, recognize the importance of paying attention to diverse competency aspects inherent to the cooperative learning process obtained.
This aspect, in line with what is suggested by Blank (1997), Dickinson et al. (1998), Mergendoller et al. (2006) and Belland et al. (2006), materializes in the attending to capacities such every bit empathy, listening, critical thinking, collaboration, controlling, group responsibility, the instructor assuming a office of leader and guide of all these during the process of learning, as considered by Thomas (2000), Walberg and Paik (2002) and Kokotsaki et al. (2016), supporting the maintenance of a more motivating, participatory and facilitating group work climate (Lima et al., 2007).
Despite the use of traditional evaluation dynamics presenting a more finalist nature, such equally the test or exam, the instruction staff recognize the value of formative and shared evaluation tools, such as self-evaluation, co-evaluation and heteroevaluation. In this sense, it is observed in the group, not without difficulties (Ertmer and Simons, 2005) a sure appreciation for the involvement of the students in the evaluation process, giving them a voice to express their ain perception through dynamics such as the presentation of resulting works and shared evaluation in this regard. Paradoxically, the students involved consider a certain lack of follow-up by the teachers on the assignments they carry out and that are a office of the project, in correlation with a conflictive management of the form in this regard. For Pérez-Pueyo and López-Pastor (2017) information technology is necessary to take farther steps in the autonomy and personal initiative of the students and their involvement in the evaluation process, the teacher being able to employ techniques such every bit automobile-evaluation, peer evaluation, shared evaluation, self-grading and dialogued grading. The same authors, for case, abet for intervening in a Secondary Education classroom by applying cooperative projects and concluding presentations of group papers or events training, tutoring in a shared way with their students and involving them in their—and other's—learning procedure; The teacher can too complete the methodological initiative by developing group auto-evaluations and co-evaluations, the students evaluating the process of effecting the group assignments or the bodily completion of the final presentations. Some recommended instruments to pb the aforementioned evaluation techniques are the grouping class diary, the auto-evaluation reports and the evaluation scales (Hamodi et al., 2015; Hernando et al., 2017).
In short, the PBL feel carried out contains all the technical elements to facilitate a learning model of the competence blazon, which addresses both noesis and skills to behave out the assignments and to offer solutions to the problems inherent to the given project, also as the abilities to do then jointly and cooperatively. However, it shows that the methodological practice proposed however suffers from a real follow-upward on the grouping process set, establishing feedback means in the action itself, neglecting the potential conflicts that arise and the smooth completion of the assignments.
In relation to evaluation, the importance of a more determinative evaluation model is recognized amongst the teachers involved, appreciating practices that activate the participation and involvement of students, although the weight of the final products continues to be relevant to the process itself.
Data availability
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.
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de la Torre-Neches, B., Rubia-Avi, One thousand., Aparicio-Herguedas, J.L. et al. Project-based learning: an analysis of cooperation and evaluation every bit the axes of its dynamic. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 7, 167 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-00663-z
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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-00663-z
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